Haematological Malignancies

Childhood Leukemia


Leukemia is a cancer of the white blood cells (WBCs), which are also known as leukocytes. When a child has leukemia, large numbers of abnormal white blood cells are produced in the bone marrow. These abnormal white cells crowd the bone marrow and flood the bloodstream, but they do not protect the body against disease as normal ones do because they are defective and immature.

As the leukemia progresses, other types of blood cell production, including that of red blood cells and platelets are affected. In the long run, this results in a low red blood cell count or anemia. There is also an increased risk of infection caused by white cell abnormalities.

Leukemias account for about 40% of all childhood cancers in Singapore and throughout the world. Luckily, there have been significant advances in the therapy of childhood leukaemias in Singapore so much so that 60-80% of these children are now long-term survivors and are probably cured.


Types of Childhood Leukemia
Leukemias can be classified into acute (rapidly developing) and chronic (slowly developing) forms. In children, by far the majority (98%) of leukemias are acute.

Acute childhood leukemias are also divided into acute lymphocytic leukemia (ALL) and acute myelogenous leukemia (AML). This categorization depends which cell line (mother cell) the leukaemia start from. Approximately 80% of children with leukemia have ALL, and about 20%1-7 have AML.


Risk for Childhood Leukemia
ALL most commonly afflicts younger children from ages 2 to 8, with a peak incidence at age 4. But it can affect all age groups.

In the majority of cases, the cause of leukaemia is unknown. What is clear is that neither parents nor children have control over the factors that trigger leukemia. Most leukemias develop from non-inherited mutations (changes) in the genes of growing blood cells. And as errors occur randomly and unpredictably, there is currently no effective way to prevent most types of leukemia.

Currently in NUH, we are studying the risk profiles of children with leukaemia to hopefully allow us to predict the risk of developing leukaemia, their chances of cure and complications from therapy. This is funded by the National Medical Research Council and A*STAR/ Singapore Cancer Syndicate.


Symptoms of Leukemia
As white blood cells are defective in children with leukemia, affected children may experience increased episodes of fevers and infections. These children may also be anemic as leukemia also affects the bone marrow's production of oxygen-carrying red blood cells. This would result in pallor and makes them abnormally tired and short of breath while playing.

Children with leukemia also tend to bruise very easily and experience frequent nose and gum bleeds. Bleeding, even from minor wounds, might be prolonged as leukemia destroys the bone marrow's ability to produce clot-forming platelets.

Other symptoms of leukemia may include:

• Pain in the bones or joints, sometimes causing a limp
• Swollen lymph nodes in the neck, groin, or elsewhere
• Abnormally tired feeling
• Poor appetite

Up to 12% of children with AML and 6% with ALL, leukemia can spread to the brain and cause headaches, seizures, balance problems, or abnormal vision. If ALL spreads to the lymph nodes inside the chest, the enlarged gland can compress on the trachea (windpipe) and the surrounding blood vessels, leading to breathing problems and interference with blood flow to and from the heart.


Diagnosing Leukemia
A physical examination will be performed to check for signs of infection, anemia, abnormal bleeding, and swollen lymph nodes. The child's abdomen is also examined to see if there is an enlarged liver or spleen this can occur with some cancers in children.

In addition medical history of the family will be taken and FBC taken (full blood count) to measure the numbers of white cells, red cells, and platelets in the child's blood. A blood smear will also be taken to check for certain specific types of abnormal blood cells.

From the results of the physical examination and preliminary blood tests, further tests like those below may be needed:

• A bone marrow biopsy and aspiration- marrow samples are removed from the body (usually from the back of the hip bone) for testing. In NUH, we have a highly comprehensive panel of routine and investigational tests that can help diagnose, subgroup and prognosticate the type of leukaemia with exceedingly high accuracy.

• A lumbar puncture (spinal tap)- where a sample of spinal fluid is removed from the lower back and examined for evidence of abnormal cells. This is to determine if the leukemia has spread to the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord).

Bone marrow or lymph node samples will be examined and additional testing will be done to determine the specific type of leukemia. In addition to these basic laboratory tests, cell evaluations are also generally done, including genetic studies to distinguish between specific types of leukemia, as well as certain features of the leukemia cells. Children will receive anesthesia or sedative medications for any painful procedures.


Treating Leukemia
The goal in treatments for AML and ALL is to attain continuous complete remission of the leukemia (when there is no more evidence of cancer cells in the body). Types and intensities of treatments are dependent on the patient and the features of his/ her condition. Some of the factors include age and initial white blood cell count. All children with ALL are treated with chemotherapy, but the dosages and drug combinations may differ.

To decrease the chance of leukemia invading the central nervous system, patients receive intrathecal chemotherapy which administers cancer-killing drugs into the cerebrospinal fluid around the brain and spinal cord. Radiation treatments to eradicate leukaemia in the brain may also be for certain high-risk patients. During this period, close monitoring by a pediatric oncologist is imperative. Intensive leukemia chemotherapy may incur side effects like hair loss, nausea and vomiting. As treatment progresses, the cancer treatment team will monitor the child closely for those side effects.

In some instances, a bone marrow transplant may be necessary in addition to, or instead of chemotherapy, depending on the type of leukemia a child has. Healthy bone marrows are injected into the child's body during the transplant.

Once remission is achieved, maintenance chemotherapy is then used to keep the child in remission. This is given in cycles over a period of 2 to 3 years to keep the cancer from reoccurring. Leukemia will almost always relapse (reoccur) if this additional chemotherapy isn't given. There are also cases when the cancer returns even though maintenance chemotherapy is given, and other forms of chemotherapy will then be necessary.

With the proper treatment, the outlook for children who are diagnosed with leukemia is excellent. Childhood ALL has >98% remission rate after 1 month of therapy and > 80% are cured with our current research protocols. Recently ~60% of children with AML are curable under our recent research protocol. All children then require regular maintenance chemotherapy and other treatment to continue to be cancer-free. Cure rates will also differ depending on the specific features of a child's disease but most childhood leukemias have very high remission rates. And the majority of these children can achieve permanent remission and be cured of the disease.

In NCIS, we have a dedicated multidisciplinary team to manage children with cancer especially those with leukaemia.  We are able to provide the complete therapy from diagnosis to chemotherapy, radiation therapy even various type of stem cell transplantation.




All information is intended for educational purposes only andshould not be used as a substitute for consultation with your doctor.

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